Virtual memory is disk drive space that is manipulated to seem like RAM. Software creates virtual memory by swapping files between RAM and the disk drive. This memory management technique effectively creates more total memory for the system's applications to use. When the system runs out of available RAM, it shifts data to the virtual memory swap file on the disk drive. However, because there is a major transfer of information that involves the hard disk drive, an overall reduction in speed is encountered with virtual memory operations.

An ink jet printer is a type of non impact printer that forms characters and graphics by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink into a piece of paper. A laser jet printer is a high-speed, high quality nonimpact printer that operates in a manner similar to a copy machine, creating images using a laser beam and powdered ink called toner.

A differential backup occurs for all files that have changed since the last full backup, regardless of whether they changed since the last differential backup. The archive bit is set to 1 when the file is modified and not reset after the backup. Incremental backup occurs only on files that have changed since the last backup. A change to a file will set the archive bit to one, thus flagging it for the backup.

Logical topology defines how device connected to the network see it, while physical topology defines how the network is actually laid out.

Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to divide and produce all the differentiated cells in an organism,
including extraembryonic tissues. Totipotent cells formed during sexual and asexual reproduction include spores and zygotes.the definition of pluripotency has come to refer to a stem cell that has the potential to differentiate into any of the three germ layers: endoderm (interior stomach lining, gastrointestinal tract, the lungs), mesoderm (muscle, bone, blood, urogenital), or ectoderm (epidermal tissues and nervous system). Pluripotent stem cells can give rise to any fetal or adult cell type. However, alone they cannot develop into a fetal or adult animal because they lack the potential to contribute to extraembryonic tissue, such as the placenta.

Introduction
Pay is a key factor affecting relationships at work. The level and distribution of pay and benefits can have a
considerable effect on the efficiency of any organization, and on the morale and productivity of the workforce. It is therefore vital that organizations develop pay systems that are appropriate for them, that provide value for money, and that reward workers fairly for the work they perform. Pay systems are methods of rewarding people for their contribution to the organization. Ideally, systems should be clear and simple to follow so that workers can easily know how they are affected. In considering rewards it should be borne in mind that pay and financial benefits are not the only motivator for worker performance. Other important motivators for individuals may include job security, the intrinsic satisfaction in the job itself, recognition that they are doing their job well, and suitable training to enable them to develop potential.

What are pay systems?
Key Points: -
 Pay systems provide the foundation for financial reward systems
 There are basic rate systems, where the worker receives a fixed rate per hour/week/month with no
                   additional payment
 There are systems related in whole or part to individual or group performance or profit
 There are systems based in part on the worker gaining and using additional skills or competencies
                     Pay systems provide the bases on which an organization rewards workers for their individual
                     contribution, skill and performance.
Pay structures
Pay structures are different - they are used to determine specific pay rates for particular jobs, usually based on the nature of the job, its content and requirements. A pay structure provides the framework within which the
organization places the pay rates for its various jobs or groups of jobs.
Pay systems fall into two main categories:
 Those where pay does not vary in relation to achievements or performance, (basic rate systems), and  Those where pay, or part pay, does vary in relation to results/profits/performance (including the acquisition of skills).
There are also systems where pay, and any enhancement, is related to the gaining of extra skills or competencies that can allow a worker to carry out a wider range of work, or work at a higher level, and provide opportunities for greater job satisfaction.
The selection of an organization's pay system is often determined by negotiations between management and worker representatives. In theory these negotiations can be kept quite separate from negotiations over payment structures and levels or amounts of pay; but in practice negotiations often embrace all pay-related issues.

Selecting and installing a pay system
Key Points: -
 Accept that there will inevitably be a cost involved.
 Avoid most potential problems with a systematic, well-timed and carefully planned approach.
 Involve the workforce, or its representatives, as much as possible, perhaps through a joint working party.
 Re-examine the reasons for change and take advice both inside and outside the organization. Obtain expert help if needed.
 Don't just discard the existing system - take stock through discussions to enable the organization to keep the good and change the less good.
 Identify what the new system is required to do - how does it relate to the organization's overall objectives?
 Look at the possible new systems and consider which might best suit the particular organization, with or without alteration.
 Changes to pay make people anxious, and so the new system should be kept simple and agreed with the workforce and their representatives.
 Prepare the way carefully with briefings to the workforce and management. Look out for any changes to differentials and relativities. Document the system and if possible run it for a trial period.
 Build in as much time as possible for proper discussion and consultation.
 Make arrangements for maintenance, monitoring and evaluation. Review the system regularly to ensure it is performing as required.
 Be careful the system does not directly or indirectly discriminate between men and women.

Performance-related pay
Performance pay schemes cover the various methods of linking pay to a measure of individual, group or
organizational performance. They all share the idea that where a worker can vary output according to effort the prospect of increased pay will lead to greater performance.

What are the most common types of performance pay?
It is difficult to clearly distinguish one type of performance related pay. They can be defined as:
Piecework:
A price is paid for each unit of output. This is the oldest form of performance pay and is still used in some local government direct service organizations (DSOs)
Payment by results:
Bonus earnings depend on measured qualities or values of output for individuals or groups, usually based on work studied time units; this covers a range of bonus schemes and still forms the main method of performance pay for manual workers
Organization-wide incentives:
Bonus earnings or pay levels based on measured quantities or values for the whole establishment; this is frequently the basis of contract price or tender-led schemes in local government DSOs
Merit pay:
Bonus earnings or pay levels usually based on general assessment of an employee's contributions to performance; this is an earlier, less structured form of IPRP (see below)
Individual performance related pay (IPRP):
Bonus earnings or pay levels based on the assessment or appraisal of an employee's (or team's) performance against previously set objectives, usually part of a performance management system. This is a fairly recent development,
particularly in the public sector and has grown sharply in use since the 1980s
What are the main steps in creating performance related pay systems?
 Setting objectives.
 Appraising results.
 Linking achievements to pay.

Where output cannot be measured, the sensible solution seems not to pay any bonus; however just because some jobs are difficult to measure, doesn't mean that good performance shouldn't be rewarded. This problem has generally been tackled by providing a lieu bonus based on average bonus earnings to those employees - very often skilled maintenance staff and supervisors - whose work is difficult to measure.
In most systems for manual workers the pay packet is in fact made up of a number of components, usually including a fixed basic payment, a variable bonus paid on output of acceptable quality and a fall back provision. Bonus payments are usually paid weekly or monthly.
In IPRP systems for white-collar workers the pay packet includes a fixed salary element, where progress through a range may be according to performance, and/or a variable bonus paid out for achieving set objectives. Variable bonus payments are usually unconsolidated and may be paid monthly, half yearly or yearly.

Advantages:
 It provides a direct incentive for employees to achieve defined work targets.
 The contribution an employee makes is recognized with a tangible reward.
 A performance culture can be developed with its introduction.
 Line managers can derive assistance from a corporate framework for setting goals. It should improve individual productivity and performance.
 Employees are more likely to focus on what they need to do to improve if this is directly linked to pay.
 A good PRP system will reward the best performers.
 It is an effective way of dealing with poor performance.
 Establishing a means of rewarding high performance can assist in retaining the most industrious staff.